Novel: Themes, Background, Types

Name: Baraiya Saryu D.

Subject: Indian Writing in English (Paper-4)

Topic: Novel: Themes, Background, Types

Roll no: 30

Study: MA

Year: Semester – I

Guided By: Heenamadam

Submitted To: Department of English

University: MKBU

The Novel: Themes, Background, Types

Introduction:

The ‘novel’ is a type of literature that we know. This novel is a new trend to India. Novel is very new and recent form of literature. All others form of literature like, Epics, short stories, poems, dramas, lyrics, ballads and etc... are very old and respected forms among art and literature lovers. These all forms of literature are very old and introduced before many centuries in India. But novel is very new form of literature for India and it is only during a period of little more than a century. It has occurred and taken root in India. Now we have a small question that we are taking about novel but what is the novel? We all know about the novel, form of literature but very few among us know the proper definition of novel. So we will begin with definition of novel:

“Novel means the long sustained piece of prose fiction.”

            Now we are going to discuss about India’s literature of novel. We all know that novel is very new form of literature and it is introduced in India in near period of time. But some scholars deny to it and they put some examples of Sanskrit works like:

Bana’s Kadambari

Subandhu’s Vasavadutta

They all use to say that these works of Sanskrit are also novels and I think they are right at some extent but at the same time I believe that description given in all that works are not appropriate. These works are proud of our regional literature, it is like a marble stone or we can say it benchmark of our literature but we can call it novel because it’s formatting differs from formatting of novel. These works has long narration and story and plot and even sub-plot, too. But then even it is not pure form of novel in Indian literature. We have to wait for novel till half of the 19^th century. For the very first time in our India pure novel is not written. Christian missionaries had translated ‘Bible’ with the help of Indian scholars in regional and public languages of India. ‘Bible’ is in pure prose so it cans conceder as first translated novel or prose work in Indian literature. And after that translation, prose currency came in power or we can say it that prose work becomes handy for official use, records, and journalism. End even our old Sanskrit Classics translated in prose work into the spoken languages of the people. Even our scholars translate Western literature in our own language and they also translate novels and other literature, too. This translation takes form of adaptation or summary kind of transformation. Like this first step toward new form of literature ‘novel’ is over.

            After the first step another step is new step or we can call it next step was the composition of new/original works. But in it our scholars have their own limitations. At the beginning they try to imitate Western authors or they wrote under the inspiration of Western models. Now a day’s situation is changed. In current situation original work of literature is published in dozen of Indian languages and English language, too. And many other novels of different languages and even novels of English literature are published in regional languages of India. It was in Bengal that the ‘literary renaissance’ first manifested itself in English literature. But afterwards that renaissance can be seen in Mumbai, Madras and other parts of India as well.

              In our India first novel is written in Bengali and it was named as ‘Alaler Gharer Dulal’. This novel is published in 1858. Afterwards it was translated in English as ‘Spoilt Son of a Rich Family’. This novel is also noted by Jack Wilton in The History of the novel in India. This novel is noted as a pioneer work.

Bankim Chandra Chatterjee:

            We have to note that real beginnings were with the work of the great Bankim Chandra Chatterjee. His first novel was published in 1864, in English and it was named as ‘Rajmohan’s wife’. And in 1864 he wrote another novel in Bengali named ‘Durgeshnandini’. But afterwards it was translated in English in 1890. His many other novels appeared between 1866 and 1886. They all are as under.

v  Kapalkundala

v  Vishvriksha(The Poison Tree: A Tale of Hindu Life in Bengali)

v  Krishnakantar Uyil(Krishnakanta’s Will)

v  Anandmath

v  Devi Chaudhurani

and many others. And all these novels were translated in English sooner or later. Bankim contributed a lot in Bengali and English literature. And even he tries to show social and culture problems of society in his works of literature. He was master of romantic and historical novel and he himself confessed:

“I am a teacher or nothing”.

In his two novels, named ‘The poison Tree’ and ‘Krishnakanta’s Will’, a married man fall in love with a young widow and his struggle for his love. By this type of plays he tried to throw light on life of a Hindu young widow. This is the real motif of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in Indian fiction. He was mostly inspired by Tod and Scott. But ‘Anandmath’ is known as Bankim’s best work in Indian writing in English in novel form. It was published in 1882. The Hinduism, Hindu widow, sannyasi, and many more characters, which are represents Indian society and rigidity, are most noticeable characters in fiction of Bankim’s writing.  

Rabindranath Tagore:

            Rabindranath Tagore is known as man of religion. He is always memorable for his work ‘Gitanjali’, In ‘Gitanjali’ poet tries to incarnating the spirit of India, a prophet of the Religion of Man. But Tagore is very noticeable novelist also. Tagore achieved his first success with ‘Choker Bali’ and it was published in 1902. That novel was translated in English as ‘Binodini’ by Krishna Kriplani.

“Here for the first time in Indian literature the actions and reactions arising out of the impact of the external happenings.”

                                                                                                            -Dr. Sukumar Sen

‘Binodini’ is also story of a young widow, too. But Tagore is different than Bankim and he was more convincing in storytelling and in psychological study of character of novel. So his skills give him new height as a novelist in Indian writing in English.  Tagore’s other work named, ‘Yogayog’ is also noticeable work. Its main character, Kumudini gives us remembrance of character Nora in Ibsen’s ‘A Doll’s House’. Like this Tagore was very great figure at that time and even in now days also.

Sarat Chandra Chatterjee:

            Sarat Chandra was also famous during that era. He also started with imitating Tagore and Bankim but after that he also shows his real knowledge. He mostly wrote in last decket of 19^th century and first two dacet of 20^th century. Sarat also passed from the stage of Tagore and Bankim and his experiences give him real identity of writer. His some famous, best and noticeable works are,

v  Shrikanta

v  Grihadaha

v  Pather Dabi

v  Bipradas

v  Ses Prasna

He wrote all his works in regional languages but most of his works are translated by other scholars in English. Like ‘Shrikanta’ was translated by K. C. Sen and Theodosia Thompson. Sarat Chandra tries to portray tears and sweat of lower class and poor class and even people who has no class, with his literary works. For Sarat Chandra we can easily say that he was complete novelist who use his art simultaneously as a camera, as a surgeon’s knife, and also as a chalice of hope.  

             Many other writers also wrote novels in that mean time. Like,

v  Raj Lakshmi Devi’s ‘The Hindu Wife’ in 1876

v  Toru Datta’s ‘Bianca’ in 1878

v  Kali Krishna Lahiri’s ‘Roshinara’ in 1881

v  H. Dutt’s ‘Bijoy Chand’ in 1878

v  Khetrapal Chakravarti’s ‘Sarata and Hingana’ in 1895

These all novels were written in English, have for us today no more than an antiquarian or historical interest. This trio, Bankim-Tagore-Sarat was known as ‘triune glory’ of that time but some other outstanding novelists were also there in that time of era. Their names are only have been scouring the ocean of everyday life in Bengal. Their names are,

      Tarasankar Bandyopadhyaya

      Bibhuti Bhushan Bandyopadhyaya

      Manik Bandyopadhyaya

      Naini Bhaumik

      Gajendrakumar Mitra

      Manoj Basu

            Now a days novel is living and involving form of literature. It is the only form which is known as reader friendly form of literature. And now in our India novel becomes more and more popular among the readers. For our convenience we divided novels in some schools. These schools are based on theme of novel. Many novels have common theme but different aspects. So this type of schooling helps us to understand about history, time, settings, and etc. about novels and novel’s background in Indian writing in English.

River novel:

            Our India is known as country of religion. We are considering river as our life line and we all know that our life is gift from our mother. So we always pray river as our mother and all river of India are very peas and holey for us. River is like a part of our life and we cannot imagine our life without river. So this very important part of our life becomes part of our literature. Many novels have theme of river. In many novels river plays vital role as it is also an important character of novel. So that type of all novels is known as ‘RIVER NOVEL’. In this type of novel action takes place by the side of a river. As an example,

o   In Rajanikanta Baradoloi’s novel ‘Miri-Jiyari’, the river Subansri is a participant in the action.

o   K. S. Vankataramani’s ‘Murugan: The Tiller’, evoking the village on the Cauvery.

o   Humayun Kabir’s ‘Men and Rivers’, action takes place on the bank of the Padma.

o   R. K. Narayan’s most of the novels take place in Malgudi on the bank of the Sarayu.

o   Raja Rao’s ‘Kanthapura’, the river Hemavathy is a person and in novel ‘The Serpent and the Rope’, the Ganges is almost a goddess.

All these rivers as character show feminine power and personality of India.

Assam Novel:

            Assam’s tea gardens and estates are very famous for their beauty and some novels are takes place in Assam. Those all novels describe beauty and situation of Assam. So, all those novels are known as ASSAM NOVEL. Assam’s life of plantation is shown by the authors in this type of novels. As an example,

• Beena Barua’s ‘Senji Patar Kahni’, the theme of novel is life in tea gardens of Assam.
• Mulk Raj Anand’s ‘Two Leaves and a Bud’, is a strong study of life in tea-estate of Assam.
• Raja Rao’s ‘Kanthapura’, takes place in estate of coffee.
• Manohar Malgonkar’s ‘Combat of Shadow’, also places in Assam tea-estate.  

In all these novels main point is politics and human emotions and this theme is shown in more sophisticated style.

History Novel:

            Our India has powerful past and our history portion is quite good and enough. So our many writers were fascinated towards our history and take some point or part of our history and elaborate in form of novel. History gives them challenge to show their creativity in limitations and that is the real charm of writing. So, history is the most favorite part of our literature which writers want to retell in novel. So, this type of novels known as ‘HISTORY NOVEL’.  As an example,

• Hari Narayan Apte describes history of Maratha in novel, ‘Ushakal’.
• T. Ramkrishna’s ‘Padmini’, is shows romance of 16^th century and leading us towards battle of Talikote.
• Romesh Chander Dutt’s ‘The Slave Girl of Agra’, is historical romance.
• Sir Jogendar Singh’s ‘Nur Jahan’, also based on romantic story of history.
•  Vimala Raina’s ‘Ambapali’, takes us back in days of Ajat Shatru and tells us story of dancer.
• A. S. P. Ayyar’s ‘Baladitya’ and ‘Chanakya and Chadragupta’.

These all novels takes bake us in ancient time and place. These novels give us knowledge of history with new portration and new significance and also new vision to look towards history and our past.

Modern Novel:

            Some novels are shown political issues and time situation of that era. Those novels take part to bring revolution in society, for the sake of society. Those novels are known as ‘MODERN NOVEL’.  Some noticeable modern novels are,

• Rabindranath Tagore’s ‘The Home and The World’ and ‘Four Chapters’.
•  Mulk Raj Anand’s ‘The Sword and The Sickel’.
• K. A. Abbas’s ‘Inqilab’.
• K. S. Venkataramani’s ‘Kandan: The Parriot’.
• Raja Rao’s ‘Kanthapura’
• N. S. Phadke’s ‘Leaves in the August’.
• Bhabani Bhattacharya’s ‘So Many Hungers’,
• R. K. Narayan’s ‘Waiting for the Mahatma’,
• Kamala Markandaya’s ‘Some Inner Fury’, and many more.

Partition Novel:

            Our India is parted with Pakistan in 1947 and afterwards partition becomes the main theme for novel because partition creates very strong image on mind of people. People had to suffer a lot during the time of partition. Many families were ruined because of it. Partition creates a horror on mind of people. So, that time is also known as ‘Partition horror’. Our writers try to draw real picture of partition with the help of literature. Those novels are known as ‘PARTITION NOVEL’. Some examples are,

• Khushwant Sigh’s ‘Train to Pakistan’, we can find horror in this novel but good point is that we can find humanity also. This work is perfect balance of both.
• Balachandra Rajan’s ‘The Dark Dancer’.
• Manohar Malgonkar’s ‘A Bend in the Ganges’.

These all novels show horror of partition during that time. We cannot even imagine the situation of that time. Devendra Satyarthi quoted that,

“No literature based on hate and prejudice can really be great. It was a drama of degradation and shame, a drama of human decay, showing how the minds of the two communities were poisoned by the dogma of two-nation theory.”

And personally I think that he is right.

Novels of Social Criticism:

            We all know that literature is just a mirror of the society. We can find all those things in literature which we can feel around us. We also can say that,

“Literature is Criticism of the society”

because our authors criticize our society with their writings. Novel is very famous form of literature so to reach to more people, writers chooses novels to criticize society. Those novels are known as ‘NOVELS OF SOCIAL CRITICISM’. Let’s see some example of it.

• Romesh Chunder Dutt’s ‘The Lake of Palms’, is a critical study of social life in Bengal.
•  T. Ramkrishna’s ‘The Dive of Death’, takes place around superstitions and which makes people cowards.
• S. K. Ghosh’s ‘The Prince of Destiny: The New Krishna’, portrays utopian East and West.
• S M. Mitra’s ‘Hindupore: A Peep behind the Indian Unrest’, is apolitical satire in social way.
• Sir Jogindra Singh’s ‘Nasrin’ and ‘Kamni’.
•  Balkrishna’s ‘The Love of Kusuma’ shows social life, culture, society, region and etc of Panjab.
• Firoz Khan Noon’s ‘Scented Dust’, is full fo love and intrigue for love.
• Dewan Sharar’s ‘The Gong of Shiva’, is also deals with the theme of love and intigue.
• Ahmed Ali’s ‘Twilight in Delhi’, leads us towards life of Muslims in Delhi.

Sannyasi Novel:

            Our India is known as country of sadhu, sannyasi, math, bava, fakir. So they all have a special part in our literature. Some novels are also based on sannyasies. So, all those novels are known as ‘SANNYASI NOVEL’. We can get examples like,

o   Bhabani Bhattacharya’s ‘He Who Rides a Tiger’.

o   R. K. Narayan’s ‘The Guide’. 

o   Kamala Markandaya’s ‘A Silence of Desire’ and ‘Possession’.

o   Anand Lall’s ‘Seasons of Jupiter’.

o   Shri Devudu’s ‘Mahabrahmana’.

o   K. M. Munshi’s epic novel ‘Bhagwan Parashurama’

Most of them novels have story of fake sadhu or sannyasi and his cheat to society.

Conclusion:

                        At the very beginning of form of novel in India our authors faces many problems. First of all form of novel came very late in India so it was give feelings of down trodden, after that very difficult task is to write in another language than our own regional language, after that what to write was the biggest question. What can be the subject of novel, what are the main aspects of novel and all that things confuses our writers. They solve that problem with some imitations and their personal knowledge. And at the end even main problem is length of novel. How to write that much long novel in other language?          

            Here we were discussing major themes and types of novel in Indian Writing in English. In olden times, these novels were known as Indo-Anglian Novel. Our writers never attracted towards new techniques of plotting, narration or characterizations of novel. They repeating just same all the time and it is conceder our writers’ limitations. But most of them started with translating literary work, then imitating style and story of foreign writers. But now slowly and steadily situation is changing. Now our writers have their own story to tell to readers. Now they have no need to imitate foreign writers. At very beginning language is hurdle. To write in foreign language is bit difficult task for our others but now it is not so. Our writers still have face problems to express real expression of characters but they can manage it easily. Now a days novel becomes most famous form of literature in Indian writing in English. Now youth like to read novels more than any other form of literature. Now Indian novels are also parted in parts like classic novels and popular novels. In recent era Chetan Bhagat, Arvind Adiga, Jumpa Lahiri, Amitav Ghosh, and many others came in recent novelist. They are popular now days. In recent time language of novel and literature is changed and different then olden one. But we can easily recognize that that time is different and now time is different. So, we can enjoy old and new both type of literature.

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Biographia Literaria Chapter: XIV

Name: Baraiya Saryu D.

Subject: Literary Theory and Criticism (Paper-3)

Topic: Biographia Literaria Chapter: XIV

Roll no: 30

Study: MA

Year: Semester – I

Guided By: Dr. D. Baradsir

Submitted To: Department of English

University: MKBU

Biographia Literaria: Chapter – XIV

Introduction:

          Biographia Literaria is a very famous and benchmark type of work of literature. It was written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. S.T.Coleridge was poet of romantic era and his time duration was 1772-1834.

He contributes in number of amounts in English Literature. His some famous and noticeable works are:

o   The Rime of the Ancient Mariner

o   Frost at Midnight

o   Christabel

o   Kubla Khan

These all poems give him a position in history of literature. And now we are going to discuss about his most prominent and legendary work of literature named as ‘Biographia Literaria’. It was published during 1815 to 1817. It is a critical work of S.T.Coleridge. This whole work is separated in to 24 chapters and it is known as standard of S.T.Coleridge’s critical work. This critical work contains autobiographical elements of Coleridge but then even it is not direct, simple or linear autobiography. It is thoughtful type of work. Originally this work was written for preface for his preface to collected volume of his poems. This work was written by Coleridge for explaining his own narrative style of poetry and mitigating his own style and practice in poetry. But after some time this work grew as a literary autobiography. This work has so many facts and concerning his education and studies and his early literary adventure. He wrote about his personal views and extended criticism on Wordsworth’s theory of poetry as given in preface of ‘Lyrical Ballads’. And by this work of criticism he supported his own theory of poetry as he wrote in ‘Lyrical Ballads’.

          This work is very long and it is structured very loosely. So it is very difficult to discuss whole work so here we are trying to discuss about only chapter: XIV. It was personally published in 1817. In his practical approach to criticism we can get sign of Coleridge as a poet and while discussing theory we can see philosophical sight and vision of Coleridge. So as per it in this chapter: XIV of critical work ‘Biographia Literaria’ we can see Coleridge’s vies on nature and function of poetry in philosophical style and terms. At beginning of this chapter Coleridge try to differentiate poetry and prose as a poet. But after it he again tries to differentiate Poetry and poem in his philosophical style. He was the first English writer who firmly believes that every work of art is an organic whole by its nature.

Two Cardinal Points of Poetry by Coleridge:

          This point started with:

“During the first year that Mr. Wordsworth and I were neighbors, our conversations turned frequently on the two cardinal points of poetry, the power of exciting the sympathy of the reader by a faithful adherence to the truth of nature, and the power of giving the interest of novelty by the modifying colours of imagination.”        

 Coleridge started his essay with the views on two points, which are just fundamental points to talking about poetry:

1.     The power of exciting the sympathy of the reader by a faithful adherence to the truth of nature.

2.      The power of giving the interest of novelty by modifying with the colours of imagination.

         

          In first point about poetry, Coleridge tries to say that a poet write a poem related to nature in very simple form and style. Any people can read and enjoy poetry. So who poet is devoted and loyal to the nature and has power to moving reader’s heart and mind towards the nature is writing this type of poetry and it was decided and by him that William Wordsworth would write poetry dealing with the theme according to first basic point and that type of poem is very near and realistic to the nature and ability to leads out the people near the nature. He quoted that:

“The sudden charm, which accidents of light and shade, which moon-light or sunset diffused over a known and familiar landscape, appeared to represent the practicability of combining both. These are the poetry of nature.”  

In this type of poems subjects are very common and taken from and chosen from day to day life and very ordinary life. The characters of this type of poems are very general and ordinary and we can easily find out this type of characters in each village.

In second point about poetry, Coleridge drags our attention towards supernatural elements and the events. And he also said that he use to write poems, related with this second cardinal point. He quoted that:

“the excellence aimed at was to consist in the interesting of the affections by the dramatic truth of such emotions, as would naturally accompany such situations, supposing them real. And real in this sense they have been to every human being who, from whatever source of delusion, has at any time believed himself under supernatural agency.”  

And he talks about supernatural elements, too. He said that poet convert poetry and atmosphere of poetry with the help of his self imagination and with mind’s eyes poet can turn all natural things into supernatural. Poet can create an imaginative world with his thoughts. After describing both these types of poetry Coleridge gave example to prove his point. ‘The Lyrical Ballads’-volume of poems written by Coleridge and Wordsworth in collaboration -deals with these two core points. Wordsworth quoted that:

“was to give the charm of novelty to things of every day, by awakening the mind’s attention from the lethargy of custom, and directing it to the loveliness and the wonders of the world before us.”

Coleridge’s Views on Wordsworth’s Poetic Creed:

              Coleridge himself not agrees with Wordsworth’s views on poetic diction. And so his different point of view about poetic faith he gives in ‘Biographia Literaria’. Wordsworth adopted language of day to day life in poetry in ‘Lyrical Ballads’. And even in preface Wordsworth giving strong and powerful criticism on using of common language in poetry. Coleridge’s view is differs with him and so in his point of view’s defense he wrote:

“Had Mr. Wordsworth's poems been the silly, the childish things, which they were for a long time described as being had they been really distinguished from the compositions of other poets merely by meanness of language and inanity of thought; had they indeed contained nothing more than what is found in the parodies and pretended imitations of them; they must have sunk at once, a dead weight, into the slough of oblivion, and have dragged the preface along with them.”

  He thinks that if these poems go through criticism then they will be criticized negatively by Critics. Preface is also criticized because of its simple language and simple formation. But it is not happened and Wordsworth’s views were accepted by Critics. So he gives full credit to the genius of Wordsworth and quoted that:

“year after year increased the number of Mr. Wordsworth's admirers. They were found too not in the lower classes of the reading public, but chiefly among young men of strong sensibility and meditative minds; and their admiration (inflamed perhaps in some degree by opposition) was distinguished by its intensity, I might almost say, by its religious fervour.”

And with this point he also added that it does not mean that he fully agrees with the all points of Wordsworth on poetic faith. To prove this he writes:

“With many parts of this preface in the sense attributed to them and which the words undoubtedly seem to authorize, I never concurred; but on the contrary objected to them as erroneous in principle, and as contradictory (in appearance at least) both to other parts of the same preface, and to the author's own practice in the greater part of the poems themselves. Mr. Wordsworth in his recent collection has, I find, degraded this prefatory disquisition to the end of his second volume, to be read or not at the reader's choice.”

Here we can say that Coleridge is frank and straight forward to point out his own views even if he differs with Wordsworth and he was saying that Wordsworth is wrong in theory and contradictory, not only in parts of the Preface but also to the practice of the poet himself in many of his points. He opposed with Wordsworth’s analysis of poetry so he told him honestly that he is not agree or in favor of his point of views.   

Difference Between Prose and Poem:

             

              This is third part or we can say it a point of Coleridge’s ‘Biographia Literaria’. We can easily recognize that the poem includes the same elements as prose compositions. So it is bit difficult to differentiate poem and prose but the difference is between combination of those elements and objects aimed at in both the composition. So they both are different in their particular aim for which they are written by poet. For it Coleridge says:

“while it is the privilege of the philosopher to preserve himself constantly aware, that distinction is not division. In order to obtain adequate notions of any truth, we must intellectually separate its distinguishable parts; and this is the technical process of philosophy. But having so done, we must then restore them in our conceptions to the unity, in which they actually co-exist; and this is the result of philosophy. A poem contains the same elements as a prose composition; the difference therefore must consist in a different combination of them, in consequence of a different object being proposed. According to the difference of the object will be the difference of the combination.”

If we differentiate poem and poetry in very simple way then we can say that which object’s subject is very simple, and main rezone to write an object is just to remember all olden facts and memories with inner flow of feelings without taking extra care of rhyme or metre that composition is known as poem. A poet should make use of artificial words and arrangement words with the help of metre. It can be done without rhyme or metre sometimes.  

“A poem contains the same elements as a prose composition; the difference therefore must consist in a different combination of them, in consequence of a different object being proposed. According to the difference of the object will be the difference of the combination. It is possible, that the object may be merely to facilitate the recollection of any given facts or observations by artificial arrangement; and the composition will be a poem, merely because it is distinguished from prose by metre, or by rhyme, or by both conjointly.”

 

As an example here I gave two lines of poem, which contains name of months and days. It is without any rhyme or metre:

“Thirty days hath September,

April, June, and November, &c.”

But in prose composition is done by metre or rhyme and it is compulsory and it is the main difference which is differentiating an object in prose or poem. Then Coleridge makes an addition that only rhyme and metre cannot create a poem or poetry. Then he talks about some other prose writings and its instant purpose and final end. A form of literary work named prose; poem and poetry are required and written for instant purpose and the final truth because it can be written for any subject like science, fiction, novel, romance and etc. And it has to convey some information to the reader or give pleasure or delight in at a moment and the final end may be to give truth. So the most important thing about work is to give immediate pleasure and delight to the reader not metrically composed.

              After this discussion Coleridge himself raises the question that:

“Would then the mere superaddition of metre, with or      without rhyme, entitle these to the name of poems?”

Then he himself gives answer of it with saying that if metre is wonderfully added the other parts of composition that also must suite and match with it. And if every part of composition like, metre, diction, topic, subject, theme, background, and rhyme must be harmonize with wholeness with the composition and then and then that composition can take form of poem or deserve the name of poem. In Coleridge’s words:

“The answer is, that nothing can permanently please, which does not contain in itself the reason why it is so, and not otherwise. If metre be superadded, all other parts must be made consonant with it. They must be such, as to justify the perpetual and distinct attention to each part, which an exact correspondent recurrence of accent and sound are calculated to excite. The final definition then, so deduced, may be thus worded. A poem is that species of composition, which is opposed to works of science, by proposing for its immediate object pleasure, not truth; and from all other species--(having this object in common with it)--it is discriminated by proposing to itself such delight from the whole, as is compatible with a distinct gratification from each component part.”

Definition of Poem:

              A piece of writing in which the expression of feelings and ideas is given intensity                         by particular attention to diction (sometimes involving rhyme), rhythm, and               imagery. So in short we can say that poem is just for pleasure and delight.

              According to Coleridge poem is distinguished form and prose is composition by its sudden object. Poem is just to please and which poem fulfills these criteria, it is known as   A Legitimate poem in Coleridge’s language. The Legitimate Poem is a small composition in which metre and rhyme bear an organic relation to the total work. He himself defines it as:

“it must be one, the parts of which mutually support and explain each other; all in their proportion harmonizing with, and supporting the purpose and known influences of metrical arrangement.”

Difference between Poem and Poetry:

              This is the last point on which Coleridge gives hid arguments in this chapter: XVI. He tries to define poetry from poem. He point out in his essay that:

“poetry of the highest kind may exist without metre, and even without the contradistringuishing objects of a poem.”

Coleridge gives examples of writings of Plato, Jeremy Taylor and Bible. The quality of that prose in these writing is equal to that of high poetry. He also said that the poem of any length neither can be, nor ought to be, all poetry. So now the main question is what poetry is and how he differs from poem? The answer is given by Coleridge that it is a distinction resulting from the poetic genius itself, which sustains and modifies the images, thoughts, and emotions of the poet’s own mind. In this essay he says:

“the answer to the one is involved in the solution of the other. For it is a distinction resulting from the poetic genius itself, which sustains and modifies the images, thoughts, and emotions of the poet's own mind.”

But difference between poetry and poem is not given specifically. Because for Coleridge, poetry is activity of poet’s mind, and a poem is only expression and feelings of poet.

“My own conclusions on the nature of poetry, in the strictest use of the word, have been in part anticipated in some of the remarks on the Fancy and Imagination in the early part of this work.”

 As David Daiches says:

“‘Poetry’, for Coleridge is a wider category than a ‘poem’; that is, poetry is a kind of activity which can be engaged in by painters or philosophers or scientists and is not confined to those who employ metrical language, or even to those who employ language of any kind.”

If we can see it in larger sense then we can say that poetry brings whole soul of man into activity and because of it each faculty performing his role properly according to its relativity, worth and dignity.  In Coleridge’s words:

“The poet, described in ideal perfection, brings the whole soul of man into activity, with the subordination of its faculties to each other according to their relative worth and dignity. He diffuses a tone and spirit of unity, that blends, and (as it were) fuses, each into each, by that synthetic and magical power, to which I would exclusively appropriate the name of Imagination.”

In poetry powers of secondary imaginations are at work and it brings all aspects of a subject into a complex unity. In short poetry means a process in poet’s mind which can take shape of any form of literature like water but it contains harsh qualities, too and Coleridge quoted this thing as:

“sameness, with difference; of the general with the concrete; the idea with the image; the individual with the representative; the sense of novelty and freshness with old and familiar objects; a more than usual state of emotion with more than usual order; judgment ever awake and steady self-possession with enthusiasm and feeling profound or vehement; and while it blends and harmonizes the natural and the artificial, still subordinates art to nature; the manner to the matter; and our admiration of the poet to our sympathy with the poetry.”  

Conclusion:

          Here we are concluding this critical essay ‘Biographia Literaria’ by S.T.Coleridge. He is the first English Critic who done literary criticism on philosophical ethics. While other critics, before him and many of after him, had been done criticism of many poems and other forms of literature but they just deals with some theories and discourse about poetry or any other form of literature on its merits and demerits. But Coleridge was different among them and busied himself towards the basics and basic questions about poetry, poem and prose. He tries to define, classify, and evaluate these three forms of literature and tries to give very specific understanding of these three forms of literature. These three forms are basic and main forms of literature and Coleridge tries to specify these there forms as per his own understanding. And with these lines Coleridge gives his own views and conclusion to this critical essay:

“Finally, Good Sense is the Body of poetic genius, Fancy its Drapery, Motion its Life, and Imagination the Soul that is everywhere, and in each; and forms all into one graceful and intelligent whole.”

       

           

             

                                                                                                                              

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Name: Baraiya Saryu D.

Subject: The Neo-Classical Age (Paper-2)

Topic: Gulliver’s Four Odd Voyages and Significance

Roll no: 30

Study: MA

Year: Semester – I

Guided By: Heenamadam

Submitted To: Department of English

University: MKBU

Author: Jonathan Swift

Gulliver’s Four Odd Voyages and its Significance

Introduction:

        Gulliver’s character is from a novel ‘Gulliver’s Travels’ written by Jonathan Swift. Writer shows voyages of Gulliver in this novel. Gulliver travels a lot in this whole novel. And every voyage has its own significance. Here I will describe Gulliver’s four ode voyages and what is the hidden meaning writer wants to convey from all that voyages. In this novel Swift Shows four voyages of Gulliver. Gulliver’s four voyages are:

          I: - A Voyage to Lilliput

          II: - A Voyage to Brobdingnang

          III: - A Voyage to Laputa

          IV: - A Voyage to the Country of the Houyhnhnms

        These four voyages are conceder as Gulliver’s four odd voyages. But now we have a question that why odd voyages?? We conceder it as odd voyages but why that is the question. Voyages are very natural and common for as then Gulliver’s voyagers are why odd? Odd means something very strange or out of the ordinary. So now we have the question that what is very strange or odd or out of the ordinary in Gulliver’s all voyages. So let’s have seen it in detail.

Book I:  A Voyage to Lilliput  

          In this novel, its four parts are known as books. Book I is about voyage to Lilliput Island. This novel is a fiction and this island named Lilliput is creation of Swift. But it’s one of the best creations of Swift. Because of some circumstances Gulliver reaches at the island. But when he tries to get up he feels tidy and then he realizes that he is tied with ropes and so many small and very tiny people walking on him and they tied him with very thin ropes in comparison of him. So he breaks all the bands and then that all people shoots him with arrows. People of Lilliput Island is only six inch high people and our narrator, Gulliver is six feet high. So Gulliver is giant for them. Gulliver is GOD like figure for them. But then even they said him to obey all the rules of Lilliput. And Gulliver agrees with all conditions. He is giant and like a God and he can destroy whole Country of Lilliput with his hands only and then even he obey all the rules and regulations of Lilliput, like he laughs on them. It is the satire by Swift in this novel. This whole novel is a satire on society by Swift. This novel has many symbols about that time of society. This novel shows that contemporary time’s situation of political and social aspects.

“When bending my eyes downwards as much as I could, I perceived it to be a human CREATURE not six inches high, with bow and arrow in his hands, and a Quiver at his back. In the mean time I felt at least forty more of the same kind following first. I was in the utmost astonishment and I RORED so loud, that they all run back in a Fright;”

          This novel is narrated by protagonist Gulliver himself and this quote is taken from novel’s Book I.  In this quote I highlighted two words ‘CREATURE’ and ‘I RORED’. People of Lilliput are tiny and that’s why Gulliver calls them creature. Here he represents England. England is the most dominating country in Neo Classical Era of literature and Swift belongs to that Era. So in this Book I Gulliver is represents England and England feels that all other Countries are just creature in front of them. So here Gulliver does the same and because of his power and strength he feels that he is the super power among that people. So he calls them creature. That is the insult of all that people but Gulliver does not care about it and that people also. This is significance in this novel that England is the most powerful and dominating country and England rules over the world at that time and Swift satires on it in this part of novel. Swift makes Gulliver huge like England and Gulliver is a mouth piece of himself and so he spoke such things for England and other countries by the name of character Gulliver in this novel. Gulliver himself thinks that he is the superior power among them because of his size and strength. So he himself calls that ‘I roar’. Roar itself very significant word because that word is connects with the lion. Lion use to roar in forest and we conceder it as a king of forest. So we can say that here using this word for himself, Gulliver tries to compare himself with The King of Forest Lion. The lion roars in forest and he roars in Lilliput Island. He compares himself with lion and it can happen that he feels that he is King of Lilliput because of his strength and power.

“The Country round appeared like a continued Garden; and the enclosed Fields, which were generally Forty Feet square, resembled so many Beds of Flowers.”

          Rods and whole Country which is built by people with very hard work seems Garden and just a flower beds for Gulliver. Some one’s hardship and hard work is just simple matter for him. It symbolizes mentality of upper class people. How they operate and treat with lower class people very harshly and rudely. Lower class people are just like creature or insects for them. This is the main significance of Book: I.

          In this book we find that Lilliput people fight with the people of       . These people fight with each other and rezone for fight is from which side an egg can break! Can we imagine such silly rezone fight! This point shows mind and mentality of people of that time in which Swift wrote this satiric novel very beautifully. This point shows that that people can fight on any rezone. People of Lilliput take Gulliver’s help for war against                     . Gulliver destroys most of the ships of enemies without any problem and even without any loose of Lilliput. Lilliputians are won that war because of him and they feel proud for him. And after that war people of Lilliput and others become friends because Gulliver tells them about it.

          This first part is quite interesting and funny. At first reading we think that it is written for children that a person reaches in a country in which people are only six inches high and then he helps that people but this is not only for children. Swift’s this novel can gives pleasure to any person from any group age. Any person can get something useful for him/her from this novel. This is like fairy tale for children but an educated person can understand the real motive of author. Author wants to show dominating countries’ position, pain, sorrow, slavery in this part of novel. And this is the best satire for ever for society. Every incident of this part has its own significance.

II:  A Voyage to Brobdingnang

          Gulliver tries to escape from Lilliput but because of storm he reaches at a place. It is another island named Brobdingnang. But on this island everything is in reveres position.

"I reflected what a mortification it must prove to me to appear as inconsiderable in this nation as one single Lilliputian would be among us."

 Here people of Brobdingnang are sixty feet high and Gulliver is just like a very small toy or like an ant for them. How funny but more than funny it is cruel for Gulliver that before he reaches Brobdingnang people are creature for him and now he is creature for people of Brobdingnang. Gulliver turns into creature in a single voyage. From God like figure to just a creature or an insect, how painful it is for a person. This is the main part of this Book II.

          First of all language is the hurdle for Gulliver. The people of Brobdingnang cannot understand language of Gulliver and as the same Gulliver cannot understand language of people of Brobdingnang. So language creates first hurdle for Gulliver. And even that thing symbolizes that they all and Gulliver are very different and diverse with each other and Gulliver is marginalized in land of Brobdingnang.

          So we can say that Gulliver is symbol of marginalized people of our society and upper class people suppress them for their own work and profit. Upper class people never care for lower class people and our society is full of conflict between upper class people and lower class people and Gulliver’s Travels’ Book: II shows that conflict.

          At very fist moment when Queen of Brobdingnang knew about Gulliver she sends three people as examiners of Gulliver and they three examine Gulliver and at the end they examine Gulliver’s teeth even and they give result that he could not be produced as nature of law and he was a carnivorous animal. Even one of them said that he might be an Embryo or abortive Birth. And after that Gulliver was taken to Queen of Brobdingnang and she surprise to see him and all courtiers also were excited to see Gulliver. They tried to talk with him and after court they all try to play with Gulliver.

 "There was a woman with a cancer in her breast, swelled to a monstrous size, full of holes, in two or three of which I could have easily crept, and covered my whole body. There was a fellow with a wen in his neck, larger than five woolpacks, and another with a couple of wooden legs, each about twenty foot high. But, the most hateful sight of all was the lice crawling on their clothes. I could see distinctly the limbs of these vermin with my naked eyes, much better than those of an European louse through a microscope, and their snouts with which they rooted like swine."

Gulliver also tries to please all that courtiers ladies and that Queen because if they are not happy with Gulliver then anything can be happen with him. So if he wants to save his life then he must obey to all of them and specially Queen of Brobdingnang. They all try to play with Gulliver and they all forced him to walk on their bodies. Gulliver walk but he does not like it and then he realizes that how hideous they are.

"This made me reflect upon the fair skins of our English ladies, who appear so beautiful to us, only because they are of our own size, and their defects not to be seen through a magnifying glass, where we find by experiment that the smoothest and whitest skins look rough and course, and ill colored."

They all have so many holes on their skin and that is the reality of a human being. A human can have so many holes in his or her self and that is the reality of human. Upper class people are always enjoying humiliation of any lower class people and Lower class people cannot do anything with it and they have to entertain Upper class people at any cost for their own personal purpose. That is the most important symbolization of Gulliver’s Travels’ Book: II

III:  A Voyage to Laputa

          After running from Brobdingnang Gulliver saw a floating island and he wants to go there.

"They made signs for me to come down from the rock, and go towards the shore, which I accordingly did; and the flying island being raised to a convenient height, the verge directly over me, a chain was let down from the lowest gallery, with a seat fastened to the bottom, to which I fixed myself, and was drawn up by pulleys."

so he tries to catch eye of people of that floating island and so they bring him up on that island and after that Gulliver came to know about that island that that is the floating island names Laputa and people of Laputa use to stay on that floating island only and they all are King’s courtiers and favorites personas only. They all use to drinking, dancing and enjoying music all the time. They have no other work for doing and they use to live their life in that way only. They and even King of Laputa can see some people on the Earth but they have voice proof shield around that island Laputa so they cannot hear that people’s voice so they use to think that all people on that the Earth are cannot speak and listen and as the same people on the Earth use to think that people on Laputa Island cannot listen and speak. As usual Gulliver faces problem of language. And that is not so that King has no sympathy for people on the Earth but he never comes on the Earth for people. Then how can he understand and realize situation of that people! If you want to help them first you have to understand their problems. But if you can never understand their problem then how can you help them? 

          England war the ruler at that time in the world and He always use to work as He wants. Politicians of England were Monarch at that time and they never use to hear a single person’s voice. They use to do only that, which they think appropriate and all people should blindly follow and obey the rules so, here in this Book Swift use to satire on political system of country and Monarchy. Politicians become earless after getting place and position and they never use to give the chance to any another person and they all use to think about their self only and after it relatives and friends. No one has time for common people that the main significance of this Book and Swift wants to satire on Political situation and political society by this Book: III and Floating Island represents the distance between Government and the people.            

   “That the system of living contrived by me was unreasonable and unjust, because it supposed a perpetuity of youth, health, and vigour, which no man could be so foolish to hope, however extravagant he might be in his wishes. That the question therefore was not whether a man would choose to be always in the primes of youth, attended with prosperity and health, but how he would pass a perpetual life under all the usual disadvantages which old age brings along with it.”

IV:  A Voyage to the Country of the Houyhnhnms

          In last voyage Gulliver reaches at land of the Houyhnhnms. At first moment he tries to climb on horse but horse dropped him down and speaks in language of man and it gives surprise to Gulliver that a horse can talk human’s language. Then he come to know about that that horse is Houyhnhnm and that Island is full of Houyhnhnms. They all are cultured horses and they have their cultured society of Houyhnhnms on that island.

          An unbelievable thing for any person and same as for Gulliver. He cannot even believe on his own eyes but after some time he believes on it and he liked it even then he got another shock in form of Yahoos. Yahoos are humans and they live their life as animals. They have no sense of clothes, food or any other thing. They are just like animals and slave of the Houyhnhnms. When they meet Gulliver they even cannot believe on it and when Gulliver said to them that there is an another world where Yahoos are known as people and Horses are treated as horses and horses are just slave of humans and human use to take work from them. They send Gulliver to live with the Yahoos but he can’t adjust there and came bake to the Houyhnhnms. They keep him with them but they use to call him Trained Yahoo. Gulliver does not like it and after some time he like land of Houyhnhnms and after that he started to learn language of Houyhnhnms. He personally believes that land of the Houyhnhnms is more cultured, sophisticated and human kind of society with humanness.

          Can we even imagine this! Never. Here by this Book: IV Swift wants to symbolize human and culture of society. Swift wants to say that if even horses tried they can build more cultured and sophisticated society. They can arrange butter than humans. Only humans are gifted by brains from the almighty God but we never use to think in proper and positive way. We cannot able to take care of our society.

"But the Houyhnhnms, who live under the government of Reason, are no more proud of the good qualities they posses, than I should be for not wanting a leg or an arm, which no man in this wits would boast of, although he must be miserable without them. I dwell the longer upon this subject from the desire I have to make the society of an English Yahoo by any means not insupportable, and therefore I here entreat those who have any tincture of this absurd vice, that they will not presume to appear in my sight."  

Conclusion:

          We just can say that we are very thankful to Jonathan Swift for gifting us such a beautiful and realistic novel. This novel can give enjoyment to any age group of people. It can fulfill fantasy of child and give moral to the society, too. It is satire on politics, society, and upper class people and even on the humans of the society. Swift uses many symbols in this novel like, in

o   Book: I Gulliver is stand for England. He ruled over the Lilliput as England ruled over the Earth in that time. It dominates most of the countries at that time.

o   In Book: II Gulliver stands for lower class people. Gulliver is treated very badly by the Queen of Brobdingnang and her other courtiers. He has to suffer a lot and he becomes creature among them. He himself fallen down in his self-respect. As like as lower class people have to suffer because of upper class people and they are just treated as slave. They have no respect or value among the upper class people. Gulliver knows about the real beauty of human that every single human id ugly, bad, dreadful and full of loop holes in his or her self.

o   In Book: III with the help of Laputa: The Floating Island Swift tries to show the differences between common people and the Government. The Government ever tries even to listen problem of public and this is the significance and symbolization of this part of ‘Gulliver’s Travels’.

o   In Book: IV with the help of Houyhnhnms and Yahoos, Swift tires to symbolizes real picture of our society.

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